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C. 民工问题背后隐藏着中国未来的所有种种暧昧的身份问题,这种人民内部矛盾连接着脑力劳动与体力劳动分工、男女分工、社会主义与爱国主义的对立、民族主义与世界主义的对立、中国还未有机会真正露脸的民族主义和种族 主义的各种面相 民工和下岗工人问题,根本上是一个劳动阶级的分化、无产阶级化中的进一步等级分层的问题。在中国,这是一个无产阶级国家成为各种资本力量的工具,通过其各种计划经济时代的僵化政策,去进一步强化这种阶级分化和差异的问题。民工问题是活着的当代人为一个已经死去的时代的政治继续付出代价的问题。巴利巴:阿尔都塞使我相信,劳动阶级的分化不是一个第二位的和剩余的现象,而是今天的各种资本主义社会的结构特征,它们决定着各种革命性转变和社会变革所需要的日常组织的立场角度。毛主义者对真正的社会主义和无产阶级文化大革命的批判之后剩下的,我看是这样一种眼光:‘社会主义的生产模式’在现实中构成了国家资本主义和无产阶级的共产主义倾向之间的不稳定的结合。马克思主义的政党重新在其社会主义国家里引入自由主义的二元论:国家与公民社会、政治与经济、市场经济与阶级斗争脱钩,后者达到自治,并将过程中的所有问题,推诿成‘进步本身之矛盾’,进步成为其意识形态。这种强大的国家装置和自治的个人经济行为之间的幻想中的完美结合,成为我们时代的所谓‘市场社会主义’和‘资本主义式社会主义(capitalist socialism)’,而这是马克思曾那么反对的自由主义二元论。〖《种》,同上,2-3页〗
从统计上看,从来没有超过一半的劳动阶级被无产阶级化。工资劳动者更多的总是仍处在半无产阶级的家庭中。这种家庭除了工资收入外,总还在生产另外的真实收入:比如说生产家庭自我消费品,或在本地销售的产品,或任何能降低最低工资水平的剩余价值的劳动。〖华勒斯坦,《历史性资本主义及资本主义文明》,同上,27页〗。中国的农民和民工是最典型的这种半无产阶级。中国的民工现象几乎可以说是中国的国家资本和民间资本家降低基本工资,降低成本,增加积累的一种手段。剥削民工不光是剥削民工本身,也顺带剥削和掠夺了民工的家庭,他们在城镇拿到的最低工资里,已被扣除了同时对他们居住地的妻儿老小的未被国家化、体制化的劳动的剩余价值的篡夺!‘One of the most effective and immediate ways for work forces to increase real income has been the further commodification of their own labour. …One of the major forces behind proletarianization has been the world’s work-forces themselves. They have understood, often better than their self-proclaimed intellectual spokesmen, how much greater the exploitation is in semi-proletarian than in more fully-proletarianized households. ’〖同上,37页〗民工现象在中国决不是特殊的,它在我们的国民经济里成了一种结构性的需要,也就是说,民工这种社会身份是我们的国家‘生产’出来的。民工这种社会身份的设定,是一种更大剥削的需要,是国家、资本和资本投资者的需要,将被不断维持。象户口,临时居住许可这种强制性的国家对公民的搬迁限制,对壮劳力与其余家庭成员之间的分离或远距离隔离,都是国家与资本结合来控制劳动力,降低最低工资标准的阴谋(一个有民工这样的阶级来生产超额利润的资本主义世界-经济市场,也只不过是:a set of rules or constraints resulting from the complex interplay of four major sets of institutions: the multiple ‘nations’, whether fully recognized or struggling for such public definition ( and including those subnations, the ‘ethnic groups’), in uneasy and uncertain relation to the states; the classes, in evolving occupational contour and in oscillating degrees of consciousness; and the income-pooling units engaged in common householding, combining multiple persons engaged in multiple forms of labour and obtaining income from multiple sources, in uneasy relationship to the classes. 〖同上,64页〗这个市场里包括了家庭劳动!这就是我们所说的中国特色的资本义式社会主义市场!)。从长远看,民工现象也是国家为了逃避劳动力再生产的责任,一再推衍对绝大多数的公民的平等的福利权利和要求的计谋,强制家庭成员为其余的成员负某种福利责任。〖参看同上,52页〗
而另一方面看,民工的身份划定又是各种资本力量不断通过政府和国家政策和力量强加它的反平等的再分配的途径。民工问题是国家长期对农民,对于农村的以土地为根的劳动力储备的无情掠夺和毁灭性开采、掠夺的残酷的继续。他们是半无产阶级,但看上去又有点象国家的半奴隶!
可是,对于农民和民工来说,‘阶级斗争无从说起’,本质上,斗争总是在‘资本积累者’之间进行,这是国家和资本家高兴看到的;阶级斗争总成了有产者之间的斗争,农民、民工和其它半无产阶级总是先已被晾在一边。〖同上,63页〗在中国,无产阶级作为一个阶级和无产阶级作为群众这两个概念从来没有被重视过。无产阶级的名头下,仍有各种被强行划定的二等三等身份,民工这个身份是最新的一个捏造。在1949年到现在的国家资积累中,人口中90%的人作出了牺牲,有时是不吃不喝(而这本来也是很好的扩大内需)地来搞‘社会主义’的经济,还要叫由无产阶级落魄为群众的人民去搞阶级斗争,而实际上,这早已是农民和城市福利阶层和国家官僚之间的阶级斗争了。中国的农民和民工过去没轮上过阶级斗争,将来要轮上看来也玄。‘说实在的,历史上,有产阶级是唯一有过的阶级’〖巴利巴,《群众、阶级、观念》,同上,94页〗,阶级斗争只发生在有产阶级之间;中国农民和民工面对的永远只有种姓、秩序、户口、临时居住证、盲流遣送……。
但每一种社会身份都以其余的所有身份为上下文,它反映了一个社会在某个时期的社会价值、行为规范和集体象征。‘民工’真实地反映了我们这个社会的当代生产关系实质,其制度环境不改变,民工问题就不会消失。我们可以自问:在我们这个社会主义国家里,其实有多少条政策、法规、内部边界,在阻止一个农民按真实的市场价出卖自己的劳动力?农民身上的劳动力不也象他们生产的粮食和棉花一样,由于国家的无论多么好心的干预,而得不到其合理的市场价值?民工自己的劳动力商品象他们丰收和粮食和水果一样,在各种资本力量垄断的市场中被倾价恶销掉了。
现在,我们总算可以来回答这个问题了:为什么需要民工:1. 他们灵活可变,不需要为其将来的发展或养老保险先期支付什么,总之是不用为所有非利用劳动时间预付租用费;2 .可根据投资者的成本考虑任意重新再置,重新布局、部署 ;3.可通过拖欠、克扣、非货币支付手段等来降低劳动力成本(民工家庭的临时和本地生产实际上是对民工基本工的一种‘补贴’,是在间接地为资本家的剩余价值作贡献!)。全世界80%以上的人口在成为生产剩余价值的劳动力,资本积累者在这一人口里又细细分出等级、内外,在各边界和分层的地方设置那些世界资本主义体系的干部,来保障其积累的顺利进行。〖华勒斯坦 《种》,同上,108页〗在民工问题背后,我们看到的是一种比现有的资本主义好不到哪里去,甚至更残忍的社会主义策略,民工问题是它制造的阶级差异、阶级等次增生的一个例子而已,民工现象一定已蔓延到了我们社会中别的阶级分层上了。
国家是制造国家内外的各种边界,尤其是国内的、甚至是市场内的各种内在边界(innere Grenzen, 费希特), 看不见的边界的作蛹者。无论是一个偷渡到美国的福建农民,还是一个到北京打工的甘肃民工,他们的头将一而再再而三地撞到同一堵国家所拦着的墙上。可怜他们自己就是国家用来造成各种内在边界的桩柱!这样的新劳动阶级连无产阶级都不是,他们过的是一种‘非生活’,一种‘有待去过的生活’,他们的‘家’,只是一个几乎是家的‘家’。〖巴利巴,《政治与其它场景》,Verso,2002,83页〗获得最高的工资价格的总是携带着继承性、积累性物质和象征资本的中产阶级教育体制里制造出来的男性劳力,一路下来就是民工、女工、童工、难民、等等这样的身份等级。民工问题牵连到的是一个无产阶级国家无限地制造新的阶级差异、身份差异和工资差异的一大串问题。
所以知识分子的关心民间疾苦,为弱势群体主持正义,一下子变成一个棘手的事。它事涉农民、民工、下岗工人、妇女劳动、童工、外企、私企职工等群体的利益与得益之间的冲突问题了。各种资本力量将会在我们的社会主义国家不断制造出新的阶级差异和阶级苦难,我们知识分子想去关心都关心不完。而且,我们知道,这些群体之间的利益又是相互冲突的。一遇到这些问题,国际劳工-社会主义运动史上的所有经历过的问题和斗争,又得在中国重演一遍:工会、劳动权益保障立法、全国最低工资标准、基本社会保障……所有的社会立法问题都滚滚而来。知识分子的关心,还存在一个是否关心得公平的问题了。而且马上又有一个能否去关心得称职的问题了,有没有资格去关心,其关心的合法问题,同时出来了。
知识分子是国家的职能机关,是要帮助人民找到他们自己的真正命运,黑格尔在《权利哲学》里这样说。马克思也说到,劳动分工真正起源于物质劳动和精神劳动的分工之时。……从那时起,意识真的可以自诩不只是对现行实践的意识,,它也真正反映了那并不反映任何真实的东西的东西。〖《德意志意识形态》,C. J. Arthur英译,伦敦,1970年,51-2页〗知识分子是意识形态的生产者,为某一主导阶级制造借口和幻觉。马克思称这样的知识分子为主导阶级的‘积极的概念意识形态分子’。为了掩盖自己的这一身份,我们知识分子总是将自己神秘化,不肯让人知道我们能制造出那些意识形态,是 因为我们处在某种生活方式、我们的历史特殊性、我们的职业思考方式等等所致。‘理性‘、‘自由’和’‘人类’这样的字眼使我们误认为自己 是无阶级的,是高于别的一切社会实践的。〖巴利巴《政治与其它场景》,同上,50-51页〗换 句话说,我们不自觉地用我们的知识、话语替国家和各种资本力量生产、维持着各种阶级差异。所以,你想想,让国家知识分子去讨论和解决民工问题将会是一种什么后果!在民工争取成为我们社会中的一个平等阶级的过程中,民工这个阶级里自己会生产出‘知识分子’,来为它在壮大过程中争夺文化霸权的,葛兰西说,以其技术-思想可租用性来为国家服务的知识分子,决不是民工们的同盟!
世界资本主义体系总是通过拉弄市场过程中的各个关节上的‘干部’来维持自己,知识分子怎能挡得住这种拉拢?〖同上,147页〗民工和农民是在物质上和社会生活上最吃力不讨好的阶级,他们被经济发展所必需的市场等级的不可避免,被市场规律和来自工头和老板的强压。但也正是中产、小资知识分子拼命制造着关于进步的意识形态,关于美国梦、阿信的故事,用既爱国又改革的新时代精神这样的意识形态去麻醉水深火热中的劳动者。如果有民工参与的阶级斗争,那也一定存在于民工和农民与各种市场‘干部’、知识和脑力生产之间。在未来,我们的各种 政治制度的合法性辩护想绕开这个农民和民工问题,将是难上加难,知识分子要做成知识分子,也将不可能。从这个意义上说,中国的新自由主义经济学家们是极不负责任的,不光是一般所说的对民间疾苦的冷漠,而且也因对权力平等这一中产阶级革命理想即自由主义核心原则的漠视,而延误了对市场过程中的国家合法性基础的求证,这一点甚至都能证明他们并不是自由主义者。
〖附1〗葛兰西论知识分子与资产阶级、与无产阶级及其政党之间的关系 〖引自《读本-1916-1935年著作选》,David Forgacs编,伦敦, 1999年,301-311页;中译本,葆耕译,人民出版社, 1969年,418-42页〗
很少有人挑战葛兰西对知识分子与无产阶级与正常的关系的论述,他的这一关于知识分子社会功能的理论对中国知识分子尤其重要,我推荐大家透彻地阅读它几遍:
Are intellectuals an autonomous and independent social group, or does every social group have its own particular specialized category of intellectuals?
1. Every social group, coming into existence on the original terrain of an essential function in the world of economic production, creates together with itself, organically, one or more strata of intellectuals which give it homogeneity and an awareness of its own function not only in the economic but also in the social and political fields. The capitalist entrepreneur creates alongside himself the industrial technician, the specialist in political economy, the organizer of a new culture, of a new legal system, etc. It should be noted that the entrepreneur himself represents a higher level of social elaboration, already characterized by a certain directive and technical (i.e. intellectual) capacity: he must have a certain technical capacity, not only in the limited sphere of his activity and initiative but in other spheres as well, at least in those which are closest to economic production; he must be an organizer of masses of men; he must be an organizer of the ‘confidence’ of investors in his business, of the customers for his product, etc.
If not all entrepreneurs, at least an elite among them must have the capacity to be an organizerof society in general, including all its complex organism of services, right up to the state organism, because of the need to create the conditions most favourable to the expansion of their own class; or at the least they must possess the capacity to choose the deputies (specialized employees) to whom to entrust this activity of organizing the general system of relationships external to the business itself. It can be observed that the ‘organic’ intellectuals which every new class creates alongside itself (知识分子阶级也创造出自己的‘知识分子’,知识分子的知识分子?)and elaborate in the course of its development,are for the most part ‘specializations’ of partial aspects of the primitive activity of the new social type which the new class has brought into prominence.
2. However, every ‘essential ’social group which emerges into history out of the preceding economic structure, and as an expression of a development of this structure, has found (at least in all of history up to the present) categories of intellectuals already in existence and which seemed indeed to represent a historical continuity uninterrupted by the most complicated and radical changes in political and social forms.
The most typical of these categories of intellectuals is that of the ecclesiastics, who for a long time held a monopoly of a number of important services: religious ideology, that is the philosophy and science of the age, together with schools, education, morality, justice, charity, good works, etc….
Since these various categories of traditional intellectuals experience through an ‘esprit de corp’ their uninterrupted historical continuity and their special qualification, they thus put themselves forward as autonomous and independent of the dominant social group….
All men are intellectuals, one could therefore say; but not all men have in society the function of intellectuals Thus there are historically formed specialized categories for the exercise of the intellectual function. They are formed in connection with all social groups, but especially in connection with the most important social groups, and they undergo more extensive and complex elaboration in connection with the dominant social group. One of the most important characteristics of any group that is developing towards dominance is its struggle to assimilate and conquer ‘ideologically’ the traditional intellectuals, but this assimilation and conquest is made quicker and more efficacious the more the group in question succeeds in simultaneously elaborating its own organic intellectuals…. The ‘intellectuality’ of each individual…
It should be possible both to measure the degree of ‘organicism’ of the various intellectual strata and their degree of connection with a fundamental social group, and to establish a gradation of their functions and of the superstructures from the bottom to the top. What we can do, for the moment, is to fix two major superstructural ‘levels’: the one that can be called ‘civil society’, that is the ensemble of organisms commonly called ‘private’, and that of ‘political society’ or ‘the state’. These two levels correspond on the one hand to the function of ‘hegemony’ which the dominant group exercises throughout society and on the other hand to that of ‘direct domination’ or command exercised through the state and ‘juridical ’ government. …The intellectuals are the dominant group’s ‘deputies’ exercising the subaltern functions of social hegemony and political government. These comprise:
1. The ‘spontaneous’ consent given by the great masses of the population to the general direction imposed on social life by the dominant fundamental group; this consent is ‘historically’ caused by the prestige (and consequent confidence) which the dominant group enjoys because of its position and function in the world of production.
2. The apparatus of state coercive power which ‘legally’ enforces discipline on those groups who do not ‘consent’ either actively or passively. …The function of organizing social hegemony and state domination certainly gives rise to a particular division of labour and therefore to a whole hierarchy of qualifications in some of which there is no apparent attribution of directive or organization functions. … In the modern world the category of intellectuals, understood in this sense, has undergone an unprecedented expansion. The democratic-bureaucratic system has given rise to a great mass of function which are not all justified by the social necessities of production, though they are justified by the political necessities of the dominant fundamental group….Intellectuals of the urban type have grown up along with industry and are linked to its fortunes. Their function can be compared to that of subaltern officers in the army. They have no autonomous initiative in elaborating plans for construction. Their job is to articulate the relationship between the entrepreneur and the instrumental mass and to carry out the immediate execution of the production plan decided by the industrial general stuff, controlling the elemental stages of work. …
Furthermore: in the countryside the intellectual ( priest, lawyer, notary, teacher, doctor, etc.), has on the whole a higher or at least a different living standard from that of the average peasant and consequently represents a social model for the peasant to look to in his aspiration to escape from or improve his condition. …The peasant’s attitude towards the intellectual is double and appear contradictory. He respects the social position of the intellectuals and in general that of the state employees, but sometimes affects contempt for it, which means that his admiration is mingled with instinctive elements of envy and impassioned anger….
知识分子与政党的关系:
1. The political party for some social groups is nothing other than their specific way of elaborating their own category of organic intellectuals directly in the political and philosophical field rather than in the field of productive technique…
2. The political party, of all groups, is precisely the mechanism which carries out in civil society the same function as the state carries out, more synthetically and over a larger scale, in political society. In other words it is responsible for welding together the organic intellectuals of a given group—the dominant one—and the traditional intellectuals. The party carries out this function in strict dependence on its basic function, which is that of elaborating its own component parts—those elements of a social group which has been born and developed as an ‘economic’ group—and of turning them into qualified political intellectuals, leaders and organizers of all the activities and functions inherent in the organic development of an integral society, both civil and political. …An intellectual who joins the political party of a particular group is merged with the organic intellectuals of the group itself, and is linked tightly with the group. This takes place through participation in the life of the state only to a limited degree and often not at all. Indeed it happens that many intellectuals think that they are the state, a belief which, given the magnitude of the category, occasionally has important consequences and leads to unpleasant complications for the fundamental economic group which really is the state.
That all members of a political party should be regarded as intellectuals is an affirmation that can easily render itself to mockery and caricature. But if one thinks about it nothing could be more exact. A party might have a greater or lesser proportion of members in the higher grades or in the lower, but this is not the point. What matters is the function, which is directive and organizational, i.e. educative, i.e. intellectual.…
〖附2〗EtienneBalibar论知识分子、政党与无产阶级群众之间的关系
But the ‘party’ is a profound ambivalent form. The history of the working-class movement, from 1840s on, is a dialectic of the masses’ integration within and opposition to the party form. The existence of the working class as a political force has never been able to do without this form (even under other names), but neither has it been able to confine itself to it. In fact, the party form bears within itself a fundamental contradiction, which is precisely the source of its historical necessity. It is not only the form in which the working-class movement resists assimilation in to the dominant model of politics but also the form of in which it enters in to the model, with the goal of transforming it, like the Trojan horse. It is the only form in which the working class, and working people in general, can establish an organic relation with intellectuals in order to give body and structure to their own class (for no ‘working –class party’ has ever existed except as the relative and conflictual fusion of a portion of the working class with a determinate group of intellectuals). Conversely, it is the only form in which intellectuals, the more or less disciplined and controlled ‘products’ of the development of the bourgeois state, can establish a new social and institutional relation with ‘productive’ workers.〖《群众、阶级、观念》,同上,152页〗
In the period of the First International, Marx was the strategic arbitrator of a very embryonic movement, bit only as a mediator and arbitrator of conflicts between tendencies in the organization, not as a theoretician of the capitalist mode of production. …Marx and above all Engels were officially in charge of the party’s theoretical direction but not, strictly speaking, of its political direction, which was in the hands of the ‘organic intellectuals’ of the party apparatus, with whom they found themselves in a constantly ambivalent relation of conflict and mutual use, both trying to ‘unite’ with the working masses.…The working class becomes the blind spot of its own politics, leaving the field free for messianic ideologization.〖同上,154-5页〗
In political terms, this implies not an absolute separation or natural antagonism of knowledge and decision, or organization, but the impossibility of the total ‘fusion’, acquired once and for all, of theoretical and strategic functions. If it is the encounter, or the conflict, between theory, or rather between theories and practices, that gives rise to both knowledge and ‘politics,’ then it is certainly necessary, from time to time at least, that theory be produced outside the organization. It may even be that there are more opportunities—and not fewer—within this parallelism for the social division of labor to evolve, and that theory (as social activity) will increasingly cease to be a monopoly of individuals or of castes, a business for intellectuals, in short, for those Marx, in the beginning, called ‘ideologists.’ For if proletarians or more generally, the people from below are no longer portrayed either as completely lacking ideology (Illusionslos) or as the potential bearers, by nature of a ‘communist world-view’—providing revolutionary theories with an ideal guarantee—they will themselves have more, not fewer, opportunities to introduce and test their ideas (the ‘thought of the masses’) in the battlefield of politics, from which they had been excluded in their own name. 〖同上,174页〗
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